Conflict Management In Negotiations Essays - Dispute Resolution

Conflict Management In Negotiations Conflict Management In The Negotiation Process Conflict Management in the Negotiation Process Conflict is an expressed struggle between two or more interdependent parties who perceive incompatible goals, scarce resources, and interference from others in achieving their goals (Wilmot, 1998, pg.34). It would seem strange to have a conflict within a conflict, wouldn't it? The whole negotiation process is in existence because of some sort of disagreement or conflict, and aside from the actual act of the negotiation, I want to discuss some of the behind the scenes conflict that can exist. Since people do the negotiating, it us understood that the people can act or behave in ways that can either make the process function or render it dysfunctional. There are three different types of outside conflict during the negotiation process I will discuss: task/person conflict, content/relationship conflict, and conflict as a constructive/positive force. Task/Person Conflict If a team is negotiating against another team, there may be conflict within the team. We experienced this in our class simulation when the spokesperson for management kept making things up, this upset his team because they didn't know where he would end up with his comments. Also, what he said didn't always coincide with what his group had decided to do during meetings and caucuses. Task conflict in team decision-making refers to the disagreements about work to be done. This includes the allocation of resources, or maybe the development and implementation of policies. This type of conflict has beneficial effects on the quality of team decision-making. Initially, task-oriented disagreement rather than consensus appears to facilitate dialectically styled discussions, which prevent groupthink (Janis, 1982). It also stimulates the identification, scrutinization, and ultimate integration of different perspectives needed to produce high-quality implementable decisions. Task conflict was also found to enhance affective acceptance among management team members due to the intellectual consideration and utilization of each other's diverse input (Amason, 1996) Person conflict in team decision-making refers to the occurrence of identity-oriented issues, where personal beliefs and morals come into play. This type of conflict deteriorates team decision-making effectiveness by limiting the team's ability to reach high-quality decisions and disturbing mutual acceptance among team members. The arguments for these detrimental consequences are that person-oriented incompatibility: (a) limits cognitive processing of new information; (b) reduces receptiveness to ideas advocated by others who are disliked; (c) decrease willingness to tolerate opposition; (d) gives rise to hostile attributions concerning each other's intentions and behaviors; (e) disturbs effective communication and cooperation within the team; and (f) consumes time and energy preserved for working on the substantive decision task (Baron, 1991, 1997). An example of task conflict could be when a chief negotiator is arguing about the location of the research to be done with some fellow members of his team. He says that the information regarding the negotiating sessions they are currently involved in is the library (it could be that simple). His teammates might suggest the internet. Since he has never had any exposure to the internet, he disagrees, saying the library has the books He may believe that the only place his team needs to search for necessary for the research. After arguing this for several minutes, the other members in his team show him how the internet works and he sees that it isn't a bad idea after all. He may still prefer to use the library, but at least he also sees the internet as an option. Let's use the same chief negotiator for our example of person conflict. He is in a group that tries to prevent old city buildings from being torn down, with the understanding that they can be rebuilt for another use. There are two different small companies that are interested in the building. One is a law firm interested in locating a branch in that area of the city. The other is an abortion clinic. Our chief negotiator is a strict catholic who is dead-set against abortion, but not to an extreme level. Other members of the group don't care either way or are against it also- except for one, and she's for it. She and our chief negotiator are having a problem picking the best company to leave the building to. Although he's not an extreme person against

Hong Kong Disneyland Essays

Hong Kong Disneyland Essays Hong Kong Disneyland Essay Hong Kong Disneyland Essay Hong Kong Disneyland had mechanisms in place to adapt to local Hong Kong culture, yet these means appeared to be partially ineffective. Why? Despite hard efforts of management, during 1 year there were some difficulties Chinese Disneyland faced to. One of the biggest problems was the Lunar New Year Holiday. It took place when administration of park didn’t take into account some particularities of Chinese people consumption habits. This fiasco led to many complaints, ticket returns and, importantly, to lost customers. Analyzing this case, I can say, that the main difficulty was cursory examination of Chinese people culture and habits. Disneyland management didn’t look at the depth of Chinese people needs. It just tried to match some obvious traditions and didn’t think further. The examples of misunderstanding Chinese habits are following: lack of Hong Kong-themed attractions, small park size, long queues as a result. Another important issue was misconception of Chinese people relationship between each other. Their perception of strict rules is not the same as American. They treat each other in different way. The cases of mistreated quests in park are the best examples of my words. In addition, widespread bias about Chinese cheap labor force played bad joke with Disneyland management. Thinking that employees in Hong Kong can work really hard and for a low salary, administration made another problem for itself. Many complaints of line staff and even high turnover added additional bad reputation to the park. To conclude, I want to say, that in spite of Chinese people wants to connect with global popular culture and distance themselves from their previous collective poverty and communist dictate, these people has unique culture that should be learned over time by Disneyland’s management.

Applied Linguistics - Manglish Dissertation Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 26500 words

Applied Linguistics - Manglish - Dissertation Example --------- 36 2.2.2.6 Copula ‘be’ ----------------------------------------------------- 38 2.2.2.7 Modals ----------------------------------------------------------- 39 2.2.2.8 Stative verbs in the progressive ------------------------------ 41 2.2.2.9 Clause structure ------------------------------------------------ 41 2.2.2.10 Other syntactic variational features ------------------------- 43 2.2.3 Syntax of the ME basilect ------------------------------------------------------- 46 2.3 Phonology ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 48 2.3.1 ... apter Three: The Use of English in Malaysia ------------------------------------------- 58 3.1 From English to Bahasa Malaysia in Post-Colonial Malaysia ---------------------- 59 3.2 The return of English to Modern Malaysia -------------------------------------------- 66 3.3 The importance of English in Malaysia today ----------------------------------------- 70 Chapter Four: Discussion and Conclusion --------------------------------------------------- 78 BIBLIOGRAPHY ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 85 APPENDIX: Malay Borrowings in ME --------------------------------------------------------- 99 LIST OF FIGURES Figure 1: Features of Sociolects of Malaysian English --------------------------------------- 14 Figure 2: Modal Verbs in SBE, ME and BM -------------------------------------------------- 33 Figure 3: A Comparative Presentation of the Responses of a SBE Speaker and a ME Basilect Speaker to Variopus Situations ------------------ ------------------- 40 ABSTRACT The emergence of ‘New Englishes’ in non-native English speaking countries, like Malaysia, has become an interesting area of research study in linguistics. A lot of the data for this dissertation comes from a survey of previous related studies, and from Malaysian newspapers, magazines, television and the like, which are illustrative of Malaysian English. To this pursuit, this descriptive non-experimental research on the development of Malaysian English seeks to answer the question: What has contributed to the development of Malaysian English as it is today? This study starts with the historical development of English in Malaysia. Then it continues by identifying the affected specific linguistic features. The differences between Malaysian English and

Introduction to Business Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 2

Introduction to Business - Essay Example Firstly it is the case that there is a strong public debt burden in the United States which can be attributed to the inability of the government to reign in its spending. Building on this point it is the case that according to the U.S. Treasury department approximately 23% and 21% of U.S. treasury securities are held by the central banks of China and Japan respectively. The solution to this problem would be for American voters to press their politicians to practice fiscal discipline. A second major problem facing the American economy which has negatively affects the economy recently is the American trade deficit which according to the CIA World Factbook (2010) reached a record $840 billion in 2008, in simple terms more is coming in than is going out. While many people would take a mercantilist viewpoint and argue that people should â€Å"Buy American† a simple solution would be for American manufacturers to simply look at what foreign products are filling this consumer gap domestically and look to find new ways to better serve their domestic customers. As a last major problem affecting the Ameican economy would be the sub prime mortgage market and credit default swaps that have helped fuel the economic downturn from 2007-2010. In terms of how credit default swaps work, they act as a type of insurance policy that backs investments and the way that they have arguable exacerbated the financial crisis is that the instruments help encourage investment in riskier investments. As far as sub prime mortgages are concerned it is the case that house prices growing every year it made sense for lenders to support buyers whose credit history was questionable (Owing to the fact that the buyers would see favorable returns in their housing prices). However when the bubble burst and the lenders sought their compensation from buyers it was the case that many people defaulted. The obvious solution for this circumstance would be for stricter regulation on

Strategic Analysis of BP Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3750 words

Strategic Analysis of BP - Research Paper Example An extensive literature review based on the firm’s strategic capabilities has been devoted in this study. Dynamic capability of a firm refers to the capabilities of strategic management in a competitive environment particularly in a perfect competition market where strategic insight is highly essential. This paper has described that theories are not sufficient to analyze the competitive performance of BP in the oil and gas industry. But a combination of study from both the field of strategic management and organization studies can show how a firm can develop symbolic capital by the social reputation and commitment. Theoretically it is called license to act which is critical activity of a firm. BP was involved in the incident of Deepwater Horizon spill in Gulf of Mexico. For this instance BP has to pay a huge amount of interest as the affected country was US and thereafter BP lost billions of its market shares. BP’s turnaround has been based on its performance and it was a symbolical event to this industry since 2005. BP managers followed a strategic activity which is theoretically called license to act which represented through the company’s acquisition of symbolic act. Discussion of theories & models from literature Three theories from the literature have been synthesized for effective discussion and analysis of the BP case. These are dynamic capability, discursive environment and symbolic capital. ... Resource based competitive advantage represents the efficient selection and optimum allocation of resources in the form of asset creation to gain capabilities that are rare and valuable for the firm itself. Organizations are aware of their internal capabilities which is analyzed by the performance and evaluated by the outcomes of the adequate level of performance. People in the organization learn new things with their work which summarized and termed as experience but when they gain experience through codification and articulation then it is termed as dynamic capability not only the general experience (Makhija, 2003, p.435). Organizations are typically constituted by past routines and patterns of different activities which the organization has followed earlier. Dynamic capabilities help the organization to realize the essential strategic objectives which can be imnp0limented through value addition in different activities. Apart from this strategic benefit, the firm can gain some othe r qualitative advantages. Differentiation of brand recognition is enhanced through effective strategic framework i.e. how fast and in what extend the developed strategies is implemented. The firm faces different obstacles in the way of implementation of different activities and for this reason it need to create an alternative framework for maintaining sustainable performance of the firm. The firm essentially needs dynamic capabilities for this type of effective performance strategy. It is reflected through the ability to gain new competitive advantage in the market dynamics. It is possible only through changes in the operational capabilities regarding implementation of activities. So the main aim of a production firm

Sainsbury plc

Sainsbury plc Introduction This report will examine the change management with focus on how change could be introduced, implemented and how resistance to change could be mà ©nage. Therefore we shallbriefly look at the change which had been taking place within sainsburysplc how it was mange and the success rate. It also evaluates the need for the change. How the stake holder analyst was done therefore the Sainsburys was used and the mckinsey company. Task one 1.1 The background of the Sainsburys plc Sainsbury plc is a registered parental company of Sainsburys Supermarkets Ltd, which is popularly known as Sainsburys, a chain of supermarkets in the United Kingdom with special focus on property and banking business. Sainsburys profits see 11% surge. MSN News. http://news.uk.msn.com/uk/article.aspx?cp-documentid=16788775 Retrieved 2009-06-13.. Its estate has been estimated to be about  £8.6 billion March 2007. Sainsburys was the market leader in the UK supermarket sector in much of the 20th century, but lost its place as the UKs largest grocer to Tesco in 1995 and in lost 1995 and was pushed into third by ASDA in 2003. The companys performance has improved by CEO Justin King in 2004 since the launch of a recovery programme. The company has been reporting its 12th consecutive quarter of sales growth. Despite predictions that Sainsburys would regain second position in January 2008, Taylor Nelson Sofres data released in January 2008 shows Sainsburys market share at 16.4%, behind Asda s share of 16.7%, but ahead of Morrisons at 11.22%. This report shall evaluate the series of change programmes in the company under the last five years with special consideration to the change types of change, change processes and how the management has been able to deal with issues of stakeholder analysis while implementing the change and how resistance to change was dealt 1.2 Business Transformation as a form of change which has occurred in Sainsbury within t. 2004-2009 Developmental Changes in the year 2004 Between 2000 and 2004, Peter Davis was chief executive of Sainsburys. The appointment of Davis was welcome by the Sainsburys investors and business experts it was believed that ht e appointment was only confirmed after the company has won the support of the Sainsbury family who kicked against the decision of making him the CEO in the early 1990s. ( Shah, Saied 2000. Sir Peter Davis brought back to take helm at Sainsburys (The Independent (Newspaper Publishing): p.19). Within the first two year Sainsbury was able to raise its profit above the target but later drop sharply in 2004 when compared with the performance of its major competitors.Davis was the architect of an almost  £3 billion upgrade of stores, distribution and IT equipment, called â€Å"Business Transformation Programme.† . Business expansion and innovation strategy were used to implement the change. However his successor later discovered that most of the investment was more or less wasted and considered failed in his key goal of improving availability. Fraction of the investments witness the construction of four fully automated depots, which was considered at  £100 million each cost four times more than standard depots Townsend, Abigail 2006. ( How the Newbury process turned Sainsburys round. The Independent on Sunday (Independent Newspapers). http://www.findarticles.com/p/articles . Retrieved 2007-02-08. . However. Lack of accurate estimation and appropriate consultation of the stakeholder was fingered to have contributed to the failure of the project and the change programme. Though, enough information were not make public on the implication of change on workers and other relevant stakeholders, but the sharp falling in the profit within the short period cold be used as yardstick to justify the reason while the project was considered good for dropping Developmental changes programme in year 2006 Christensen spoke on the four automated depots introduced by Davis, that there was no single day went by without one, of the system developing if not all of them The systems were flawed. They most of the time to stop for four hours daily for repair maintenance. But because they were constantly breaking down you would be playing catch up. It was a vicious circle. Christensen believe it was a great mistake to build four such depots at a goal, instead of building one which could be thoroughly tested before investing in another. Resuscitating of the Failed automated Project in 2007 The launch of the recovery programme by king, Sainsburys announced a further  £12 million investment In 2007 in its depots in order maintain speed with sales growth and the removal of the failed automated systems from its depots. Since the launch of Kings recovery programmed, the company has reported fifteen consecutive quarters of sales growth, most recently in November 2008. Early sales increases have been attributed to the new companys distribution system and the focus of the fresh and healthy food (Improved supply lifts Sainsburys. BBC News. 2005-03-24. http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/business/4378035.stm. Retrieved 2006-10-11.) A transformational change: In May 2007 Sainsburys identified five areas of focus to take the company from recovery to growth in order to transform its business strategy: therefore it identified the following focus as key factors to core activates in line with the concept of comparative advantage and the value chain (Michael p, 1985) the five core value include: * Great food at fair prices * Growth of non-food ranges * Reaching more customers through additional channels through opening of new convenience stores and growth of online home delivery and banking operations. * Expansion of supermarket space through new stores and development of the companys largely underdeveloped store portfolio. * Active property management 2009 update Transformational changes Sainsbury embraced the external boundary as change model through merger and acquisitions to achieve this change Sainsburys announced In March 2009 its intention to buy 24 stores from The Co-operative, 22 of which were Summerfield stores and the remaining 2 were Co-op stores. These were among of their estate which The Co-operative were required to sell after the completion of the Summerfield takeover. (Guardian (2009-11-04). 1.3 The issues which have made the company consider the change The loss of market position; peter Davis Within the first two year Sainsbury was able to raise its profit above the target but later drop sharply in 2004 when compared with the performance of its major competitors.Davis was the architect of an almost  £3 billion upgrade of stores, distribution and IT equipment, called â€Å"Business Transformation Programme.† This was among of the issues that necessitated the change 1.4 The process which the change took place 1.4.1 Identification of the need for change At the end of March 2004 Davis was elevated to the position of chairman and Justin King replaced him as the CEO. Justin King joined Sainsburys in 2004 from Marks and Spencer plc where he was a director with responsibility for its food division and Kings Super Markets, Inc. subsidiary in the United States. Schooled in Sol hull and a graduate of the University Of Bath, where he took a business administration degree, King was also previously a managing director at Ads with responsibility for hypermarkets. 1.4.2 Shareholders consultation: Gathering of useful data needed for the change from the relevant stakeholders as part of his 6 month business review asking them what they wanted from the company and where the company could improve, King ordered a direct mail campaign to 1 million Sainsburys customers This confirm the commentary of retail analysts repot that the group was not ensuring that shelves are fully stocked, because of the IT systems introduced by Peter Davis. (Sainsburys heads back to basics. BBC News. 2004-10-19. http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/business/3755066.stm. Retrieved 2008-10-09.) 1.4.3 Implementation of change King announced the results of his business review and his plans to revive the companys fortunes in a three year recovery plan entitled Making Sainsburys Great Again on 19th October 2004 . This was generally well received by both the stock market and the media. He used CHANGING STRUCTURES MODEL in his implementation of the change. As part of the Immediate plans, included lying off 750 headquarters staff were laid off and around 3,000 shop-floor staff were recruited in order to improve the quality of service and the firms main problem of stock availability. The aim of the decision was to increase sales revenue by  £2.5bn by the financial year ending in March 2008. Another important announcement was the decision to halving the dividend to increase the retained profit in order boost the financial capacity to funds price cuts and quality. Lawrence Christensen was also hired as supply chain director in 2004 having worked as an expert in logistics at Safeway but decided to leave as a res ult of the Morrison takeover. This marked the beginning of developmental change in the year 2006 as the company begin to witness improvements in its supply chain and the two abandon distribution center were reactivated 2.0 Task 2 2.1 How the relevant stakeholder analysis was done during the change Before 2004, series of transformational changes have been taking place within the company. Though, it was recorded that most of the change produced a favorable result in the short run. But the shortfall of the change became so sharply and worst than the formal position of the company. Sainsbury plc did not only witness decline in profit but also lost market position to his arch rivers Tesco and Asda. Poor project assessment and lack of proper consultation with relevant stakeholders. 2.1.1 Customers Having learnt from the previous mistake committed by the predecessors who had caused the organization its place of pride in the market, King ordered a direct mail campaign to 1 million Sainsburys customers as part of his 6 month business review asking them what they wanted from the company and where the company could improve. This reaffirmed the commentary of retail analysts the group was not ensuring that shelves are fully stocked, this due to the failure of the IT systems introduced by Peter Davis. 2.1.2 Employee As one of the relevant stakeholder, employees are considered to be important to the success of any change introduce in an organization. The change affect people and people tend to react to changes. Negative reaction to change could mark the beginning of the failure of the new change while the positive reaction could fast track the success of such change programme. These confirmed by recent research conducted by mckinsey on the important of change to the organization and how important is people in the implementation of change and therefore suggested tactics that to successfully implement change. Employees were carried along in making the change by getting the employees involve at the beginning of change and in the process of implementation. Organizations need for change Constantly, for all kinds of reasons, but achieving a true step change in performance is rare. Indeed, in a recent McKinsey survey of executives from around the world, only a third says that their organizations succeeded in doing so. Executives were also asked how their organizations designed and managed a recent change effort, how they engaged employees in it, and how involved senior leaders were. (http://blog.theleadershipsphere.com.au/the_leadership_sphere/2008/09/index.html) The results of the survey highlight several important strategies or methods that organizations use to transform themselves successfully. Hence, the Setting of clear and high aspirations for change is the mostly important. A second tactic is general involvement of the whole organisation by engaging the whole company in the change effort through a wide different of ways; it was believed that a highly involved and visible CEO is crucial, but that successful companies are also using series of other communication and accountability tactics to keep people involved. Far more methods than unsuccessful companies use, also notable: successful companies are far likelier to communicate the need for change in a positive way, encouraging employees to build on success rather than focusing exclusively on fixing problems. (The McKinsey Quarterly conducted the survey in July 2008.). Therefore Sainsbury was able to draft in the interest of their workers in terms of human resource planning, training and developmental programme reward team management and flat organisation structure which enhance effective two ways communication system. (http://blog.theleadershipsphere.com.au/the_leadership_sphere/2008/09/index.html) 2.1.3 Shareholders One of the objectives to maximise is the maximisation of the shareholders wealth. Organisation tents to satisfy the interest of this group while pursuing profitability and handsome return on investment. Hence inability of the past administration had lead to change of leadership before the period to be considered in this project. Maximisation of shareholders wealth was put at the centre of interest in all the change programmes. 2.1.4 Competitor: Through stakeholder analysis, competitor as always been a force to reckon with. Sainsbury was able to analysis his competitors to whom she as lost his place of priority in the market which had made her to settle for third position in the grocery market in up. Hence that is why Sainsbury has putting a lot marketing strategies in order to ensure customers satisfaction and retention through excellence customer service. 2.2 Where the staff involved or considered in the change In the planning and the implementation process of change The target of the change programme was to improve customer patronage and to make more profit. Therefore workers were put at the centre of the change in order to make them have the thorough knowledge of the change which was about to take place. Hence Sainsbury also embark on training and development. Staff got involved in the Implementation process as staff serve as a medium through new changes are being communicated to customers. Task 3 3.1 The significant change that took place in Mckinsey and company Transformational change in Mckinsey and company with special attention on knowledge management over the Years Between I926 and 1950s Mckinsey company was established in 1926 as an Accounting and Engineering Advisors. the was using a system integrated approach which could be otherwise refers to as General Survey Outline basis of knowledge managements, the company was pursuing undeviating sequence of analysis goal strategy, policies, organization, facilities procedures and personnel, data which are to be synthesized and think for themselves while solving clients problems. as a result of business boom, more hands were employed and the organizations value chain were broadened, more policies were created with the clients as the main stake holder putting them at the center of the activities The company belief that every assignment must to bring more than revenue to the company, more of experience due to business expansion in the 20th century the company need more hand to meet the increasing demand these made the company to adopt generalist approach which leaves the problem solving task with hired experts. This was the beginning of the change in the organization Between 1950 and 1967 Introducing the expert base problem solving system by the Bower lead administration. He assumed that a highly intelligent generalist (expert) could easily diagnose client issues and through it professional capabilities solve the problem without waste of time and resources this was believed to be the appropriate way of dealing with the increase in demand which the company was enjoying at present so instead of allowing the traditional practice where the collective, brainstorming section of solving client problems that encourage the participative system, which was the cultural practices of the company before the business expansion, bower prefer to rely more on the solving client problems by the means of expertise. However, the knowledge issue of development within the organization was considered to be peripheral as the solving clients problem was believed to be core issues that is important if the customers demand is to be achieved and the business expansion goal is to be continues. The assumptions worked for short period as the company experience increase in sales and expansion of business spreading across the globe. This work well as the company witness a lot of expansion during the period in terms of market growth at the expense of internal growth (knowledge development), but looking at the cultural web of McKinley which is was known for participative system of clients prob lem solving system through which the knowledge were gathered developed and shared that enhance staffs improvement was not considered. living the problem solving in the hand of the expert in a company like mckinsey where knowledge remain the core activities when considering the value added to the end product(porter value chain 1985). The growth of the organization stopped within the short time. 3.2 The key challenges the organization has faced in implementing changes Integration of objectivity due to massive business expansion: The massive business expansion which has led to the diversifying into other business had posse series of challenge to the company, the organization was growing bigger and the system of administration was also going more complex. This made series of change programmes to be difficult to implement. http://www.changeminds.org/disciplines/change_management/resistance_change/dealing_resistance.htm 3.3 Resistance to change from the employees and partners Resistance to change from the staff that begins to see change introduce as a treat and therefore change their perspective towards participation in the change programmes. Example of such resistance was their unwilling to contribute to data collection programmes which the company was trying to use for database in order to enhance knowledge management within the organization. However the company use consultation and staff involvement in the change planning processes to win the support of the workers to embrace the change programmes http://www.changeminds.org/disciplines/change_management/resistance_change/dealing_resistance.htm 3.4 My suggestion for the organization to resolve the various challenges facing the organization in implementing change programmes Here are things the organization can do to handle resistance, starting with kind and moral approaches and ending with the harsher end of gaining compliance. Facilitation It has been argued that best approach in creating change is by working with them, helping them achieve goals that somehow also reach to the goals of the change project. People will be very happy to work with you when you work with them. This could be said to appropriate and good practice where people are willing to support programme but finding it difficult to adjust. http://www.changeminds.org/disciplines/change_management/resistance_change/dealing_resistance.htm Education When people are not willing to support changes due to lack of clear understanding of the benefits and the rationale behind the change programme, manger might use education to enlighten people in order to understand the benefit of the change from positive perspectives. (http://www.changeminds.org) Involvement When people are not involved physically or intellectually, they are unlikely to be involved emotionally either, involving people in change planning is one of the best methods dealing with peoples resistance to change. Their involvement will make them support the success of the programme by persuading others to begin to see the change from the positive perspectives. (http://www.changeminds.org) Negotiation When persuasion seem to have failed to yield positive result, then manager might need to introduce a round table discussion by Sitting them down and ask what they want, find out what they want and what they will not. Negotiate mutually agreeable solutions that satisfy them and the fundamental objective of the change. http://www.changeminds.org) Manipulation Manipulation means controlling a persons environment such that they are shaped by what is around them. It can be a tempting solution, but is morally questionable and, if they sense what you are doing, will lead to a very dangerous backlash. It is only good for short term purposes and after when all the other options has failed http://www.changeminds.org/disciplines/change_management/resistance_change/dealing_resistance.htm Coercion Here manager tend to apply force in making people to accept the change threat of loss of job if fail to comply perhaps in a humiliating public sacking. This could be used when the change is urgent and speed is considered to be of essences and the process of other alternative has been considered too slow and not likely to yield any good result http://www.changeminds.org/disciplines/change_management/resistance_change/dealing_resistance.htm 4.0 Conclusion The change has been seen as an agent of business growth and development. Hence change could be said to important to the organization survival especially in the highly competitive business environment, how it capable of improving the organization, leverage the organization cultural web. Therefore, managers need to evaluate change within the context of the organization cultural web with the consideration of the relevant stakeholder with an appropriate implementation strategy. This will facilitate dealing with resistance to change and peoples corporation in achieving the fundamental objective of the change. An effective change processes will be of advantage as it will also pave way for constant review. Reference John. N (2004). Management Second Edition, published by prentice Hall London Porter, M. E. (1996). What is strategy? Harvard Business Review, November-December, 61-78 Website. SainsburyArchive.http://www.museumindocklands.org.uk/English/Collections/CollectionsOnline/SainsburyArchive/Themes/Places/Expansion/Drurylane.htm. Retrieved on 2009-11-11 Sainsburys goes on  £83m coop spree. Press release. http://www.guardian.co.uk/business/2009/mar/04/j-sainsbury-supermarkets. Retrieved 2009-05-23. http//www.sainsburys .co.uk http://www.mckinsey.com/careers/is_mckinsey_right_for_me/roles_and_career_paths.aspx accessed on 17/11 /2009 Journals: the McKinsey Quarterly conducted the survey in July 2008. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sainsbury%27s Shah, Saeed (2000-01-15). Sir Peter Davis brought back to take helm at Sainsburys. The Independent (Newspaper Publishing): p.19 Townsend, Abigail (2006-04-23). How the Newbury process turned Sainsburys round. The Independent on Sunday (Independent Newspapers). http://www.findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_qn4159/is_20060423/ai_n16212212. Retrieved 2007-02-08. Sainsburys heads back to basics. BBC News. 2004-10-19. http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/business/3755066.stm. Retrieved 2008-10-09. http://blog.theleadershipsphere.com.au/the_leadership_sphere/2008/09/index.html Jameson, Angela (2008-01-10). Sainsburys sales rise defies retail gloom. The Times (Times Newspapers). http://business.timesonline.co.uk/tol/business/industry_sectors/retailing/article3163999.ece. Improved supply lifts Sainsburys. BBC News. (2005-03-24). Retrieved at http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/business/4378035.stm Retrieved on 2006-10-11. Sainsburys profits see 11% + surge. MSN News. http://news.uk.msn.com/uk/article.aspx?cp-documentid=16788775. Retrieved 2009-06-13.

Importance of The Beast in Lord of The Flies by William Golding Essay

Importance of The Beast in Lord of The Flies by William Golding All the way throughout the book, of ‘Lord of the Flies’ there is one main, big theme; the beast. It was first introduced by a small boy who was described as ‘a shrimp of a boy, about six years old, and on one side of his face was blotted out by a mulberry-coloured birthmark.’ The boy with the mulberry-coloured birthmark said that it was ‘a snake-thing, ever so big.’ By describing the beast as a ‘snake-thing’ makes it sound like as if it is something quite abnormal, because he’s not so sure about it being a snake. This keeps the beast more of a mystery, and starts making the beast as the unknown. The beast being a snake is quite significant because it’s not a huge animal that you can keep a look out for, it’s small and you won’t even know when it’s near you, and can do you as much harm as a lion or tiger would. Ralph when he first hears about the beast laughs it off, and doesn’t think about it seriously. He also convinces the other big boys that it was the small boy’s imagination. ‘Laughing, Ralph looked for confirmation round the ring of faces. The older boys agreed;’ page 35. Every single time someone tries to show Ralph that the people were starting to get scared, and that as the days went on, more and more people became aware of the ‘beast’, he always throws the idea away to show that if he isn’t scared then why should anyone else be; and covers it up by saying that they need to get rescued. ‘ â€Å"The best thing we can do is get our selves rescued.† ’ page 54. So even if Ralph is scared of the beast, his speech leads the readers and the characters of the book to think that he is brave, and doesn’t want to think about the beast becaus... ...ther boys. ‘Simon was crying out something about a dead man†¦The beast struggled†¦There were no words and no movements but the tearing of teeth and claws.’ page 168 – 169. This is quite important because the only person who knew about the beast had now just been killed by the beast within the other boys. One of the main themes throughout the book is shown as part of the boys. Although at the beginning the beast had no importance in the novel, near the end it was the only theme to concentrate on as everyone could only think about torture, hunt and kill. Before Simon had died, there was some kind civilisation around, and people weren’t that much afraid of the beast, as they knew they had someone saying that there was no beast. But after the beast inside themselves kill Simon, everything becomes wild and savage, and there is more of the fear of the unknown. Importance of The Beast in Lord of The Flies by William Golding Essay Importance of The Beast in Lord of The Flies by William Golding All the way throughout the book, of ‘Lord of the Flies’ there is one main, big theme; the beast. It was first introduced by a small boy who was described as ‘a shrimp of a boy, about six years old, and on one side of his face was blotted out by a mulberry-coloured birthmark.’ The boy with the mulberry-coloured birthmark said that it was ‘a snake-thing, ever so big.’ By describing the beast as a ‘snake-thing’ makes it sound like as if it is something quite abnormal, because he’s not so sure about it being a snake. This keeps the beast more of a mystery, and starts making the beast as the unknown. The beast being a snake is quite significant because it’s not a huge animal that you can keep a look out for, it’s small and you won’t even know when it’s near you, and can do you as much harm as a lion or tiger would. Ralph when he first hears about the beast laughs it off, and doesn’t think about it seriously. He also convinces the other big boys that it was the small boy’s imagination. ‘Laughing, Ralph looked for confirmation round the ring of faces. The older boys agreed;’ page 35. Every single time someone tries to show Ralph that the people were starting to get scared, and that as the days went on, more and more people became aware of the ‘beast’, he always throws the idea away to show that if he isn’t scared then why should anyone else be; and covers it up by saying that they need to get rescued. ‘ â€Å"The best thing we can do is get our selves rescued.† ’ page 54. So even if Ralph is scared of the beast, his speech leads the readers and the characters of the book to think that he is brave, and doesn’t want to think about the beast becaus... ...ther boys. ‘Simon was crying out something about a dead man†¦The beast struggled†¦There were no words and no movements but the tearing of teeth and claws.’ page 168 – 169. This is quite important because the only person who knew about the beast had now just been killed by the beast within the other boys. One of the main themes throughout the book is shown as part of the boys. Although at the beginning the beast had no importance in the novel, near the end it was the only theme to concentrate on as everyone could only think about torture, hunt and kill. Before Simon had died, there was some kind civilisation around, and people weren’t that much afraid of the beast, as they knew they had someone saying that there was no beast. But after the beast inside themselves kill Simon, everything becomes wild and savage, and there is more of the fear of the unknown.

Notes for Final Paper

Do not change the font and do not put in any punctuation or other marks in the answer sheet; put only the letter choice of your answer. Also, do not put any spaces before or after the letter you enter as your answer. Be sure to turn off the automatic completion function of cell entries. On the Tools menu, click Options, and then click the Edit tab. Clear the Enable Autoclave for cell values check box. Please put only your last name on the Answer Sheet in the by writing it in the yellow space. 1. With regard to the court, adequacy of consideration means: A.The court will adjust the consideration if the value exchanged is unfair. B. The consideration exchanged must be exactly equal in value. C. The court doesn't care about value as long as the mutual assent is valid. D. The consideration exchanged must be reasonably close in value. 2. Bill gets many speeding tickets. His friend Ron told Bill that he would pay Bill $300 if he did not get a ticket for one year. Bill drove very cautiously for the next year and did not get a ticket. Is Ron obligated to pay? A. Yes, because Bill gave up a legal right based on the agreement.B. No, because $300 is not an adequate amount based on Bill's detriment. C. Yes, because a promise is a promise and consideration has nothing to do with this agreement. D. No, cause Bill suffered no detriment in this agreement. Page 2 of 6 LAW 421 – Quiz 3 – 7. 01. 14 3. Excursions Inc. (Excursions) ordered 300 kayaks from Seafarer's, Inc. (Seafarer's), with delivery to be made on April 20. The kayaks will used during the upcoming season. Under which circumstance may Excursions claim anticipatory repudiation? A.The popularity of kayaking has suddenly decreased and Excursions isn't sure it can use 300 kayaks during the upcoming season. B. The cost of kayaks has tripled owing to worldwide demand, lowering Seafarer's profit margin. Yet Seafarer's insists that it will honor the contract with Excursions. C. Excursions have found another man ufacturer that can provide less expensive kayaks of the same quality as Seafarer's kayaks. D. Seafarer's only manufacturing plant burned down on January 1 5, yet Seafarer's insists that it will rebuild the plant and honor the contract with Excursions. 4.Ronald contracted with Quality Hotel (Quality) to rent a room for a weekend while at a business meeting in the city. The contract with Quality required a $50 deposit with the remaining balance due on check-in. The deposit was nonrefundable unless the reservation is cancelled at least 36 hours prior to check in. The day before he was to eave for the resort, Arnold's boss called off the business meeting. Ronald called Quality, canceled the reservation, and demanded a refund of his deposit. A. Ronald will get the refund because of impossibility of performance; he can't attend a business meeting that isn't going to be held.B. Ronald will get the refund because of frustration of purpose; his intention was to attend a business meeting that is no longer being held. C. Quality is not required to provide a refund. D. Ronald will get the refund because of impracticability; he doesn't need a room to attend a business meeting that isn't going to be held. 5. Paul contracted with Dan to buy some land on behalf of Developers, Inc. Developers told Paul to use Pall's own name and not to disclose to Dan that Paul was working for Developers. Paul signed the contract in his own name only. Developers refused to honor his arrangement with Paul.A. Paul is liable, but may sue Developers based on failure of loyalty. B. Paul can't be sued because he's only an agent. C. Developers has no liability to anyone since his name was never disclosed. D. Paul is liable, but may sue Developers based on indemnification. 6. Which of the following is not an exception to the employment-at-will doctrine? A. An employee is working under an implied employment contract. B. An employee's termination violates a public policy or statutory right. C. An employ ee is terminated but has received excellent evaluations and the employer cannot give a reason for the dismissal.D. An employee is working under an express employment contract. Page 3 of 6 LAW 421 – Quiz 3 – 7. 01. 14 7. Big Box Inc. (Big Box) was hiring a security guard for one of its stores. On its application, Big Box asked whether the applicant had ever been arrested. Bob applied for a Job at Big Box and answered no to the question. He also answered no to a question asking if there was any reason that he would not be qualified to work as a security guard. Soon after Bob was hired, he hit a customer. It was discovered at trial that Bob had been fired from numerous Jobs for abusing customers and other offenses.If the customer sued Big Box: A. Big Box would not be liable because it made a good faith effort to screen applicants by specifically asking about past indiscretions. B. Big Box would not be liable because Bob was supposed to control customers. C. Big Box would be liable for negligent hiring. D. Big Box would be liable for negligent retention. 8. With regard to whistle-blowers: A. Every state law protects both government and private employees from retaliation. B. Employers may terminate whistle-blowers if they can prove a reason for termination independent of retaliation for the whistle blowing. C.There is no federal whistle-blower act. D. Based on the employment-at-will doctrine, employers may terminate whistle- blowers without proving a reason independent of retaliation for the whistle blowing. 9. Rupert hired Calvin to drive a car to a site 75 miles away. Rupert specified the route that Calvin was to take and told him to be sure to arrive by 4:30 pm. On the ay, Calvin became hungry and decided to stop to eat. He had plenty of time to stop, eat, and still make the deadline. He went too restaurant that was three miles off the route that Rupert had specified. Calvin did not call Rupert to ask for permission.On the way to the restaurant, Ca lvin failed to stop ATA red light and hit Cam's car. Sam sued Calvin and Rupert. A. Rupert will lose because Calvin was on a frolic, so Rupert is liable B. Rupert will win because Calvin was on a detour, freeing Rupert from liability C. Rupert will lose because Calvin was on a detour, so Rupert is liable D. Rupert will win because Calvin as on a frolic, freeing Rupert from liability 10. Adam accepted a new Job. Which of the following is not a contract condition related to that Job? A. Adam will receive a bonus provided that he obtains 25 new clients within 30 days. B.Dam's medical and dental benefits will start after he has worked for seven months. C. Dam's salary will be $1,200 a week. D. Adam cannot begin work until he passes a drug test. 11. The IRS has developed a three-part test to determine an agent's status. Which of the following is not an element in this test? A. Whether the working relationship is written or oral B. He type of working relationship between the parties C. Be havioral aspects of the parties D. The financial arrangements between the parties Page 4 of 6 LAW 421 – Quiz 3 – 7. 01. 14 12. Ernie worked as a delivery driver for a local fast food restaurant.His duties consisted of making deliveries along a designated route. One day Ernie decided to visit his friend, who lived 8 miles out of his delivery route. While driving to his friend's house, Ernie injured a pedestrian, Alvin. The accident was caused because of Ermine's negligent driving. Alvin sued both Ernie and the restaurant for personal injuries. Under the circumstances: A. The restaurant is never liable for the negligent acts of its agents. B. The restaurant is liable under the doctrine of respondent superior. C. The restaurant is not liable because Ernie was on a frolic of his own. D.Alvin can recover damages from both the restaurant and Ernie. 13. James wanted to have a pool built at his house. He called Patio Construction, Inc (Patio). When Patio came to give James a p rice, it did some soil tests and discovered no problems. Patio quoted $1 5,500 for the pool. However, when it begin excavating for the pool, Patio discovered solid rock few feet below ground level. Patio stopped work and informed James that, due to the rock, it will have to use explosives to remove the rock and that the cost of the pool would now be $18,000. A. James is under contract and will have to pay the new price. B.James can have the contract discharged based on impracticability. C. James can have the contract discharged based on frustration of purpose. D. James can have the contract discharged based on impossibility. 14. Jake advertised his scooter for sale. The scooter doesn't start easily in damp weather. Adam was looking for a scooter to use at his home, which near the seacoast, which he told Jake. Jake said nothing. Adam bought the scooter, brought it to his house, where Adam often had trouble getting it to start on damp mornings. A. Jake has committed a fraudulent misre presentation because he withheld a material fact.B. Jake has not committed a fraudulent misrepresentation because Adam didn't specifically ask if the scooter started easily in damp weather. C. Jake has committed an innocent misrepresentation because he didn't state a lie, but only withheld all of the truth. D. Jake has not committed a fraudulent misrepresentation because silence cannot be considered a fraudulent misrepresentation. 15. In which of the following scenarios would enforcement of specific performance be appropriate? A. You ordered a stereo from an electronics store and a few days later it breached by not ordering it from the manufacturer.B. A store agreed to order a laptop computer for you, but breached its contract with you by canceling the order the next day. C. You ordered 50 cubic yards of crushed from a local store and it breached by not delivering or making the stone available to you. D. You contracted to buy an antique clock to add to your art collection; but, desp ite the contract, the owner refused to sell at the last minute. 16. Which of the following is the true statement? A. Apparent authority is based on what the principal communicates to the agent and not to the third party. B.Actual authority must be expressly created and cannot be based on custom or past dealings. C. Actual authority must always be expressed in writing. D. Ratification applies to previously unauthorized acts. Page 5 of 6 LAW 421 – Quiz 3 – 7. 01. 14 17. Jim contracted with Gardeners Inc. To plant some trees in Jims back yard. Jim was to purchase the trees. The contract with Gardeners was solely for planting. Payment was to be 25% at the time that the work commenced and 75% once the Reese were planted. Jim purchased the trees and paid Gardeners the 25%. Gardeners began work.When Gardeners was half way through the Job, Jim changed his mind about having trees planted, so he refused Gardeners access to the yard. If Gardeners wanted to rescind the contract an d be paid for work completed, it would sue for: A. Consequential damages. B. Compensatory damages. C. Restitution. D. Liquidated damages. 18. Marine, Inc. Advertised a canoe on sale. The normal price is $1,250 and the sale price should have read $950, but the advertisement stated $750. Sam went into the tore and demanded to purchase the canoe at the advertised price of $750. Which of the following is correct? A.The court will adjust the consideration, if the value exchanged is unfair. B. The court doesn't care about value, as long as the mutual assent is valid. C. The consideration exchanged must be exactly equal in value. D. The consideration exchanged must be reasonably close in value. 19. In which of the following situations is the agent not liable should the principal breach the contract with the third party? A. Agents are liable in all agency situations B. Undisclosed agency C. Partially disclosed agency D. Disclosed agency 0. Bobby entered into a contract with Eddie. Subsequen tly, Bobby assigned his rights in that contract to Jake.Which of the following would not prevent that assignment? A. The contract contains an anti-assignment clause. B. The assignment would materially alter Eddies duties and cause an increased burden or risk to Eddie. C. Eddie protests the assignment and demands that Bobby not make the assignment. D. The assignment would violate public policy matters. 21 . Which of the following is the best explanation of the parole evidence rule? A. Oral agreements may be used to change a final written contract if the final written entrant isn't exactly conforming to the pre-contract agreements. B.Written contracts with ambiguous terms are automatically void and cannot be corrected. C. Written agreements may be used to change a final written contract if the final written contract isn't exactly conforming to the pre-contract agreements. D. A written contract is the final expression of the party's agreement and may not be contradicted by oral or writ ten agreements made prior to the writing. 22. Ralph was a driver for Discount Appliances, Inc. (Discount) and made deliveries to customers. One day, Ralph negligently secured a fridge on the back of his truck and, hill driving, the fridge fell out of the truck and hit Jims car.Which of the following is correct? A. Both Ralph and Discount are liable. B. No one is liable, it was an accident. C. Ralph is liable, but not Discount. D. Discount is liable, but not Ralph. Page 6 of 6 LAW 421 – Quiz 3-7. 01. 14 23. Richard called Jeff asking him to referee a game. Jeff is not obligated to work the game. If Jeff accepts the assignment and works the game, he would be told the time of the game, he would be required to wear an approved uniform, and he would be paid a fee. Once at the game, Jeff would be in complete control. Jeff is considered a/an: A. Principal. B. Independent contractor. C. Agent. D. Employee. 24. In which of the following situations will the court enforce a contract? A. Kevin offered to sell his boat to Dave for $12,500. Dave replied that was too much and said, â€Å"I'll give you $10,000 for it,† Kevin said no. The next day Dave called Kevin and said, â€Å"l accept. † B. Kevin offered to sell his boat to Dave. Dave asked for 24 hours to decide and Kevin agreed. At midnight, the boat sank, although neither Dave nor Kevin knew it sank. Dave called Kevin before the 24 hours was over and said, â€Å"l accept†. C. Kevin offered to sell his boat to Dave.Dave asked for some time to decide and Kevin gave him until 7:00 pm. At 5:00 pm, Dave saw Adam painting the boat and was told that Kevin sold it to him. Dave called Kevin at 6:00 pm and said â€Å"l accept†. D. Kevin offered to sell his boat to Dave. Dave asked for more time and Kevin said you may have until 11:00 am the next morning. Dave gave Kevin $150 for him to keep the offer open to him, which was nonrefundable. Kevin died during the night and, after hearing that Kevin died, Dave called Seven's heirs at 10:00 am the next morning and accepted Seven's offer.When Paul came home from work, he found that all the snow from a recent storm had been removed from his yard. An hour later, a boy came to Pall's door to collect payment for the work. Paul refused to pay him because he had never seen the boy before, nor had he hired him to do the work. Which of the following is accurate? A. This is an implied, unilateral contract, therefore, he must pay. B. Paul received unjust enrichment, so a quasi contract was formed and he must pay. C. Paul would not have to pay anything. D. To be fair to both parties, the court would make Paul pay the reasonable coos

Commercial Fixture Essay

Suggested questions for the Commercial Fixtures Inc. case are given below. 1. What would you as an outside third party bid under the same conditions (with the same information) for the entire company (both halves)? Why? 2. What do you expect Albert Evans to bid for Gordon’s half interest? Why? 3. What should Gordon Whitlock bid for Albert’s half interest? Why? 4. How would you structure the purchase of the business? Question #1 is a business valuation question. There are a number of ways to estimate the value of a business. You have probably covered one or more of these ways in a previous class. The next two pages review a few of the various ways to go about it. For a discounted CF approach of valuing Commercial Fixtures Inc., I will use the following template: VALUATION APPROACHES – OVERVIEW/REVIEW 1. Comparable Trades Analysis — Using valuation ratios, or â€Å"multiples† of comparable firms Use one or more valuation ratios, which include (a) Price-Earnings (b) Market-Book (c) Price-CF (d) Price-Revenues (e) Enterprise Value to EBITDA, and (f) Other ratios. The prospective value (price) of the subject firm is quantified into—and compared with—one or more of the valuation ratios of its peers. The better the performance of the subject firm relative to comparable firms in the relevant performance measures (as measured by operating ratios), the higher the appropriate valuation ratio for the firm (and vice-versa). 2. Liquidation Value, aka Book Value approach Place liquidation values on the net working capital and fixed assets of the firm. Include tax write-off benefits, if any. This approach is rarely useful, and will typically serve as a minimum value (unless the firm is in severe distress). 3. (i.) Discounted Present Value of the Firm’s Free Cash Flows   Ã¢â‚¬â€ commonly referred to as DCF Valuation, or WACC valuation Value of the Firm = PV of future free cash flows + PV of terminal value a.Estimate the first 3 to 10 years’ free cash flows and calculate the PVs. (A five year horizon is common, but this can vary.) Typically you will use the WACC as your discount rate. Depending on the circumstances, the estimated cash flows may be available for fewer than five years, or more than five years. b.Estimate the PV of the terminal value. One estimate for the terminal value involves assuming perpetual cash flows after the initial time horizon, e.g.: i.If the cash flow after 5 years is expected to grow at a rate g for the foreseeable future: Terminal Value5 (TV5) = FCF6 /(k – g) = FCF5 (1+ g) / (k – g)., where k is the required rate of return. You must discount the TV to time 0, and then add this to the PV of the FCFs during the projection horizon. ii.If the cash flow at the end of 5 years is not expected to grow, i.e., g=0, then the general formula collapses to the PV of a no-growth perpetuity: Terminal Value5 = FCF6 / (k-g) = FCF5 (1+ g)/(k – g) = FCF5 / k c.Use the Value of the Firm equation above, i.e. sum PV of free cash flows + PV of terminal value . The Value of the firm’s Equity = Value of the Firm – Debt Currently Outstanding. 3. (ii.) Adjusted Present Value approach — we will only briefly discuss this approach; a topic for a future finance course. 4. Comments on Valuing the Firm using DCF (or WACC) and APV valuation approaches a.Watch the free cash flows (not reported earnings)! In particular, as in the capital budgeting decision process: –Depreciation charges are not cash outflows. –Investment in new property or equipment is a cash outflow. –Increases in net working capital are cash outflows. –Taxes are cash outflows b.Do not subtract interest expense from FCFs. We want to estimate a value for the whole business. The return to creditors is reflected in the discount rate used. c.Consider other factors, such as a control premium or a lack of marketability discount. These are mentioned in your textbook, and we will discuss these in class. d.Notice the sensitivity of your estimated firm value to changes in assumptions, particularly the perpetual terminal growth rate, and the discount rate. Typically a range of firm values is calculated from various ranges of these two rates (as suggested in the template on p. 1), particularly when uncertainty is high.

Cost

Cost Nowadays the issue of public health goes beyond the boundaries of the certain countries. We live in a highly globalized world and can effectively join our efforts in order to overcome mass diseases in the poorest countries. The issue of cost-effectiveness becomes one of the central points on the agenda of the global medical organizations and institutions.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Cost-effectiveness of the global health programs specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More The aim of this essay is to characterize the criteria of cost-effectiveness and its impact on the global health programs and interventions. The finding of the cost-effective solution boils down to the determination of the interventions creating the greatest good for the greatest amount of people at the lowest cost (Jacobsen, 2009). It is unarguable fact that the access to the healthcare in the poorest countries is restricted by the severe economic distre ss in these countries. That is why the balance of cost and benefits should be found in the global health programs. The overcome of the mass diseases in the certain regions of our planet cannot be achieved without healthcare cost reduction. Jacobsen (2009) states that â€Å"one way to calculate cost-effectiveness is to compare the cost of an intervention with the resulting increase in years of healthy life† (p. 286). A lot of global medical organizations and institutions refer to the measure of DALY which is the disability-adjusted life years. Levine (2007) mentions that the success of the recent programs has been proved by the inventions that used â€Å"a cost-effective approach, determined by a threshold of about $100 per DALY (disability-adjusted life years) saved† (p.25). However, the global medical programs and interventions differ depending on their particular purpose. The vertical programs which are disease specific and centrally managed assume the delivery of me dicines and services outside the ordinary medical servicing (Levine, 2007). These programs have proved their effectiveness in the low-income countries. The community-wide interventions including salt iodation and the improvement in the tobacco control in Poland refer to the traditional public health interventions which have proved to be successful (Levine, 2007). All of these programs were developed for the achievement of the specific purpose, thus concentrating resources on the aid to certain groups and maximizing the effective result in these groups.Advertising Looking for essay on health medicine? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Technological innovations are widely claimed to be the main drivers in the healthcare access promotion. Many of the global health programs concentrate their efforts on the technological innovations in the healthcare system. However, the cost of their implementation and usage is hardly to be affordable to the low-income countries. Levine (2007) states that â€Å"the technological innovation led to better health only because of a concerted and large-scale effort to make it available at cost affordable to developing countries and donor agencies† (p. 29). The cooperation of the private and public sectors are necessary to achieve the cost-effectiveness of the new medical technologies (Levine, 2007). In order to summarize all above mentioned, it should be said that the criterion of cost-effectiveness is the important measure of the overall success of the health program. The reduction of cost for maximizing the number of people treated is one of the main goals of the global health interventions in the low-income countries. In this context, finding of the cost-effective solution is vital for saving lives and increasing the life expectancy in the developing world. The global health organizations should employ this criterion for the determination of the overall effecti veness of the initiated program. References Jacobson, K. H. (2009). Introduction to global health. Boston, USA: Jones and Bartlett Publishers. Levine, R. (2007). Case studies in global health millions saved. Boston, USA: Jones and Bartlett Publishers. Cost Introduction Recently the basis of utilizing antiretroviral treatment for South African citizens suffering from AIDS has been use of highly active antiretroviral treatment (HAART), which consists of two nucleoside formulations along with either a non nucleoside formulation or a protease inhibitor provided concurrently to persons suffering from Aids on a continuing mainstay.Advertising We will write a custom coursework sample on Cost-effectiveness of Highly Active Antiretroviral Therapy in South Africa specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More HAART is considered to be more effective to reduce HIV progression and morbidity in relation to other analogues like nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitor (NTRI) [1]. However, constantly mounting pressure on clinical service monetary allocations makes it necessary that clinical service technology shows not only wellbeing and effectiveness but in addition cost efficacy. Financial analyses bring about details regarding cost effectiveness through contrasting the cost and gains of a single medical service project to the cost and/or advantageous of an agenda that it is at the end targeting to substitute. Although highly active antiretroviral treatment is currently popular therapy for people suffering from AIDS in South Africa, insufficient proof was documented regarding its cost efficacy before its extensive utilization. Furthermore, as it has of late been proposed that the guideline for financial analysis should be dynamic and needs to proceed prior to technologies has become reference healthcare policy [2-5] instead of a single event, the study aims to examine the cost efficacy of HAART in South Africa. Methods Study modeling A Markov modeling comprising 38 twelve-month durations was utilized in simulating the progression regarding HIV scourge and in estimating the cost, effect and cost efficacy [4, 6] of highly active antiretroviral treatment alternative [7]. The design of the Ma rkov modeling was based on frameworks earlier utilized in approximating the cost efficacy of HAART [8, 9]. Markov states were developed as per the CD4 numbers, which offer evidence upon which cost efficacy of AIDS therapy is modeled. Cost efficacy was examined through dividing the cost variance with the variance that occurs in health results, that is, quality adjusted life year (QALY) or life year (LY) added between the HAART and No-HAART alternatives in producing incremental cost efficacy ratios (ICERs) [5]. Probabilistic simulations (Monte-Carlo) evaluation was developed based on an imaginary sample of 2000 AIDS patients (1000 in HAART cohort and 1000 in No-HAART cohort) who were aged 18 when they entered the Markov modeling, thus enabling investigation on the impacts of indecision regarding the various variables.Advertising Looking for coursework on business economics? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More The simulati ons were carried out numerous times to enable representation of a number of various medical events during evaluations. The reference cost of No-HAART treatment, time of HAART therapy impact and the consumption weightings were stated to be mainly â€Å"possible† values, in combination to lower-and-upper boundaries, instead of one-point approximates, in a quest of describing more practical events [3, 10]. A more potential value was set equivalent to documented average value while lower and upper boundaries were set at 0.95 confidence levels. The Markov modeling comprised 4 health conditions: 200=CD4350 cell/micro liter, 50CD4200 cell/micro litre, AIDS and Death. Patients entered the Markov model at the health condition 200=CD4350 cell/micro liter. After each cycle, patients’ HIV state either remained unchanged, advanced or reversed. Figure 1: Health conditions (see rectangles) and transiting probability (see arrows) comprised in Markov modeling (arrow indicates directio n of possible transition) Therapy impacts (transiting probability) Overall effect of therapy on HIV progressions were evaluated utilizing examinable data from South Africa. Information on ART naive patients who commenced using HAART and who in addition had 200=CD4350 cell/micro liter formed part of the cohort. For patients getting HAART treatment, HIV progressions were examined utilizing data from 1000 patients who enrolled for ART therapy over the research duration. HAART effect on HIV progressions were examined utilizing details on 1000 patients who commenced full antiretroviral treatment. Follow-ups for such patients were expurgated during their final visit and/or death, and comprised information prior to treatment, as therapy adjustments at this period would have no impact on progression probability. The uncertainty to die was accounted not only for the concerned age-adjusted death degree in the sample but also for the threat of receiving AIDS [5]. For the sake of this study, a patient in the two cohorts who passed on during treatment duration was deemed to have passed on because of an AIDS based circumstance. However, this can over approximate the death cases linked to HAART, since a larger percentage of death cases are expected to be non-AIDS-based in this cohort [9, 11].Advertising We will write a custom coursework sample on Cost-effectiveness of Highly Active Antiretroviral Therapy in South Africa specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Antiretroviral unresponsive people suffering from AIDS are regarded to be having an enhanced first reaction to therapy in relation to people who have earlier been introduced to antiretroviral [2, 3, 9]. Thus, the model comprised transiting probabilities from one health state to another (see table 1). Because individual follow ups were uncensored when a patient progression along the Markov cycles, the modeling absolutely integrates succeeding therapy malfunction and adjustments during treatment. The first and succeeding pair of transiting likelihoods in each therapy was computed by classifying patients as per their initial health status, 12 months and during 24 months after commencing therapy. A patient who passed on during the 12 months was added to the death state while a patient who had opportunistic disease or whose final HIV based condition was over  ½ a year prior to the expected time, were grouped as per their CD4 amount during the event (200=CD4350 cell/micro liter, 50CD4200 cell/micro litre). The CD4 counts during each period were approximated utilizing linear regression between the prevailing counts and counts after the specified time period. In case no CD4 values were found after this period, the CD4 counts were approximated to be the number prior to this period, as long as the value was determined during the first quarter of that period [12]. Finally, since the period of the impact of HAART is greatly not known, in the basic evaluation it was presumed that extra medical effects of HAART were assumed to be for 60 months with a least and optimum period of 24 and 96 months, in that order. However, the extra cost of HAART in relation to No-HAART treatment was presumed to be separate from medical impact and to prolong up to either the modeling stopped or a person passed on, whichever came early, so as to create conventional estimates of cost efficacy [13, 14]. Table 1: Yearly transiting probability based on a group of persons suffering from AIDS who were listed for therapy in South Africa To state From state 200=CD4350 50CD4200 AIDS Death 200=CD4350 # 0.21 (0.18-0.24) # 0.20 (0.15-0.35) 50CD4200 # # 0.45 (0.35-0.55) 0.25 (0.15-0.35) AIDS # # 0.40 (0.3-0.5) NB: all people entered the Markov model at the health condition CD4†¹ 200. # Indicates residual probabilities. All row probabilities add up to one. Also values exclude yearly age-adjusted likelihood of passing on. Transition probability Changeover pr obability based on Markov modeling is needed in specifying all necessary transitions of Markov conditions (see arrows in fig.1). For the HAART modeling, movement probability as well as 0.95 confidence interval (CI) is approximated based on Kaplan result maximum approximations of survival representing 1000 participants under antiretroviral for the initial 4 years of the study [7, 8].Advertising Looking for coursework on business economics? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Changeover probability for the No-HAART modeling was gotten from a domestic ordinary history group encompassing 1000 ART unresponsive participants. The probability of transiting from 200=CD4350 to 50CD4200 is 0.21, probability of transiting from 50CD4200 to AIDS is 0.45, probability of transiting from AIDS to death is 0.4, probability of transiting from 200 =CD4350 to Death is 0.2, and that of transiting from 50 CD4200 to Death is 0.25. Treatment cost The cost to treat people suffering from HIV with HAART treatment depended on approximates gotten from the South African Potential Evaluating System-AIDS Health Financial research [14]. The research approximated the HIV treatment requirements that were needed by more than 13 000 people suffering from AIDS in 9 hospitals in South Africa, comprising the resources attached to related diseases. Resource approximates were the associated with basic individual costs gotten from an earlier research [12]. This cost was in addition combined with approximates of the social service cost linked to various phases of HIV [15], implying that such an evaluation was carried out based on South African public monetary view. The costs to treat people using HAART were approximated as the cumulative costs to treat people with HAART plus the costs to treat HIV related complications. Discounted per case life-time cost were 2,232,614 for No-HAART against 8,131,018 for HAART. The discounted incremental cost (ICER) per QALY added was 10,533. The ICER value was less than per life year added and fairly greater after discounting costs at 3%. No additional cost was added to this assessment. In the basic evaluation, cost was discounted at 3% in a year but medication impact remained undiscounted, as per the current South African policies, apart from the sensitivity assessment [6, 7]. All documented expenditures were based on 2008 data [12]. Table 2: Total costs of HAART treatment in 2008 (US dollars) and utility weightings based on HIV condition [ 12]. 200=CD4350 50CD4200 AIDS Death Cost 500 750 1500 0 SE 100 150 300 Utility 0.85 0.70 0.50 0 95% CI 0.80-0.90 0.65-0.75 0.45-0.55 0 CI = Confidence Interval SE = Standard error Quality of life Currently, only a few utility weightings are available to people suffering from AIDS. The most appropriate information was generated from a cohort comprising 249 Canadians suffering from HIV utilizing the health utility indexes mark II [12]. However, except for the fact that such information was generated for Canadian individuals, it was only evaluated utilizing multivariate modeling, implying that absence of variations in documented weightings between these two cohorts could be described using elements like before therapy background, period of the last HIV associated situation, threat class or opportunistic diseases. The Mark II comprises of a health condition categorization method and a corresponding pair of utility weightings [12, 13]. The categorization method has seve n measures, consisting of mobility, pain and healthcare. The utility weighting was computed through requesting 1000 Canadians to respond to a visual-analogue scale and through scoring the responses using standardized gable value. Sensitivity evaluation Basically, the greatness of the ICERs measured against their compound variables, and therefore the certainty level that may be associated with the basic cost efficacy approximate, can be examined utilizing sensitivity evaluation [4, 15]. In this study, 1-way sensitivity evaluations were carried out on different elements, comprising the extra costs associated with HAART in order to emphasize their significance to determine cost efficacy. This was attained through varying the number associated with one element (for example cost of HAART) while leaving all other numbers in the modeling process constant, and through analyzing the succeeding variation in ICER value. Elasticity, which measures the effect of adjusting various parameters on t he ICERs, was in addition computed for some elements like the ICER’s % change against a % change in the variable. Overall, a higher elasticity means an enhanced importance of the variable to determine cost efficacy. Negative elasticity is linked to a decrease in the ICER, that is, an increase in cost efficacy, while positive elasticity indicates that the ICER value increased, implying a reduction in cost efficacy. Analysis/Results In this study evaluation, the cumulative cost, life years and QALYs for people who did not use HAART for 38 years was 2232614, 90 and 1964, in that order (see table 3), and for people treated with HAART, the cost, life years and QALYs linked to therapy was 8131018, 115 and 2524 respectively, implying that the cost for treating individuals and impacts were boosted by approximately 36.3 per cent and 22.1 per cent, in that order, generating an ICER value of 238543 for one year added. Approximately 24 % of the cost of highly active antiretroviral treatm ent was due to the costs to provide HIV drugs. Adjusting life years in the health conditions resulted to an ICER value of 10533 in each QALY added (Table 3). Also the cost per case amounted to $138 for participants under HAART and $250 for patients not under HAART. The mean cost of each patient case amounted to $267. 71% of patients led to a mean weighted cost amounting to $162 per case. The cost of each patient treated amounted to $622. The percentage for each case cost associated with treatment varied between 4-34% for patients under HAART. The total yearly cost for HAART including cost of drugs amounted to $438 in a year whereas the highly active antiretroviral therapy cost totaled to $162 in a year. Second phase was twice the cost of first phase, amounting to $952 in a year. The cost of checking CD4 and drug costs amounted to approximately $25 in each quarter. The cost in each Markov state has been computed through multiplying health service use and per case costs. HAART cost wa s greatest for patients bearing 50CD4200 during the initial 12 weeks under HAART, amounting to $548 not including cost for dead patients. Cost remained steady, but shifted to more than $340 in every year period after which second-phase medication was included. No-HAART cost in the 50CD4200 and 200=CD4350 classes amounted to $250 (undiscounted) and to $223 with discounts using an overall discount factor of 22. Table 3: Cost, impact and cost efficacy of HAART in relation to No-HAART Life years QALYs Costs Incremental cost/LY Incremental cost/QALY No-HAART 90 1964 2232614 HAART 115 2524 8131018 238543 10533 Difference 25 560 5898404 Incremental value cannot directly match because of the error of rounding off Sensitivity evaluation The outcomes indicated that the ICER values were slightly elastic to a one percent increase of the per year probabilities of HIV advancement and fairly elastic upon increasing the cost of HAART (with a sensitivity of 0.68). However, additio nal evaluation indicated that the ICER values were highly elastic to increasing rate of discounted cost (with a sensitivity of -7.1) and also sensitive to a discount of treating impacts per year at 1% (with a sensitivity of 10.7). The ICERs were in addition highly elastic to the presumption about the time and costs provided that HAART prolonged in having an incremental impact, the ICERs declined to about 238543 in each life year added. Furthermore, when the probable time-periods of the effectiveness of HAART were extended to six years from five, the ICERs declined to about 229070 in each life year added. Discussion This study aims at approximating the cost efficacy of complete AIDS healthcare comprising HAART based on principal costs, use, Life years and life adjusted quality years data derived from an extensive group in an industrializing nation setup. This research has initiated some improvements to reference Markov model concepts that have been use in industrialized nation HAART cost efficacy analyses such as the development of subway nations in capturing the quickly reducing use and mortality within the initial months of HAART treatment, and the availability of a Markov modeling state that reflects the stringent concept of HAART provision in South African general HAART policies. The Markov model has in addition initiated the idea to capture the main cost-determiner of healthcare via transition cost, which is gained as a patient transits to death from Markov states. Probabilistic sensitivity analyses have acquired statistics indecision with 95/100 confidence interval regarding life-time cost, results and ICER. To conclude, the outcomes generated in this study indicate that HAART is a fairly cost efficient technique to treat people suffering from HIV in relation to No-HAART. However, decreasing the costs associated with HAART would considerably enhance cost efficacy and permanent information regarding the comparable efficacy of HAART is needed so as to compl etely validate the outcomes of this study. References Drummond M, Sculpher J, Stoddart G. Methods for Economic Evaluation of Health Care Programs. 3rd ed. Oxford: Oxford University Press; 2005. Drummond M, McGuire A. Economic Evaluation in Health Care Merging theory with practice. Oxford: Oxford University Press; 2001. Miners A, Sabin C, Trueman P, et al. Assessing the cost-effectiveness of HAART for adults with HIV in England. HIV Medicine. 2001; 40(2): 52-58. Briggs A, Sculpher M. An Introduction to Markov Modelling for Economic Evaluation. Pharmacoeconomics. 1998; 13(4):397-409. Bozzette S, Joyce G, McCaffrey F, Leibowitz A, Morton S, et al. Expenditures for the care of HIV-infected patients in the era of highly active antiretroviral therapy. N Engl J Med. 2001; 344: 817–823. Gold R, Siegel E, Russell L, Weinstein C. Cost-Effectiveness in Health and Medicine. New York: Oxford University Press; 1996. Fox-Rushby J, Cairns J. Economic Evaluation. Oxford: Oxford University P ress; 2005. Stoll M, Class C, Scuttle E, Graf M, Schmidt R. Direct costs for the treatment of HIV-infection in a German cohort after introduction of HAART. European J Med Res. 2002; 7: 463–471. Torres R, Barr M. Impact of combination therapy for HIV infection on inpatient census. N Engl J Med. 1997; 336: 1531–1532. Donaldson C, Mugford M, Vale L. Evidence-based Health Economics: From effectiveness to efficiency in systematic review BMJ Books, London; 2002. Freedberg K, Losina E, Weinstein M, Paltiel A, Cohen J, et al. The cost effectiveness of combination antiretroviral therapy for HIV disease. N Engl J Med. 2001; 344: 824–831. Sendi P, Bucher C, Harr T, Craig B, Schwietert M, et al. Cost-effectiveness of highly antiretroviral therapy in HIV-infected patients: SWISS HIV Cohort Study. 2009; 13: 1115–1122. Badri M, Maartens G, Mandalia S, Bekker L, Penrod J, et al. Cost-Effectiveness of Highly Active Antiretroviral Therapy in South Africa. PLoS Med. 2006; 3 (1). Beck E, Kennelly J, McKevitt C, Whitaker L, Wadsworth J, et al. Changing use of hospital services and costs at a London AIDS referral centre. AIDS. 1994; 8: 367–377. Beck E, Mandalia S, Williams I, Power A, Newson R, et al. For the NPMS Steering Group Decreased morbidity and use of hospital services in English HIV infected individuals with increased uptake of anti-retroviral therapy 1996–1997. AIDS. 1999; 13: 2157–2164.

Management in Health and social care Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Management in Health and social care - Essay Example By contrast, the new reform models require purchasers-government-appointed authorities, private insurers, or risk-bearing groups of health providers-to proactively manage and allocate resources amongst different health care needs. Purchasers are expected to manage treatment decision-making by physicians and other health providers. Managed competition and traditional single structured management combine elements of both government planning and market approaches. Managed care, another concept that is often referred to in the context of health care reform, is the mechanism through which managed competition proposals seek to obtain cost savings, but as described further below, can be employed in any health care system. The internal market programme has been surprisingly successful. The large majority of the measures of which the programme was made up have been adopted in time. Admittedly, there are areas which lag behind (such as free movement of persons). Moreover, it has not always bee n possible to maintain the rigorous approach originally and a lot remains to be done with regard to implementing the adopted measures at national level. Nevertheless, the essence of the internal market is in place, which finds perhaps its most spectacular expression in the complete abolition of controls on the movement of goods. From an economic point of view, the question whether there is an external dimension to the internal market sounds almost ridiculous. How could, an economist would argue, a policy of economic integration that is as encompassing as the internal market programme and that applies to twelve developed countries which play an important role in international trade not affect trade and economic relations with the outside world However, from the point of view of law-and policy-making the question could be raised in the early stages, as indeed it has been. One can safely say that until 1988 the attitude of the Community's institutions towards both the external effects of the internal market programme and the relationship between the programme and the Community's external policies was one of benign neglect. Before describing the competition-oriented reform models, a preliminary question must be addressed: why is health care reform needed A number of factors have converged creating strong pressures for health care reform in developed countries. These factors include: concerns over increases in total spending on health care services; concerns over rapidly increasing government spending; access and rationing concerns; and concerns over the cost-effectiveness and, indeed, effectiveness of many services supplied. Let us look more closely at the forces contributing to reform throughout the 1980s and 1990s, beginning first with the concern over growth in total health care spending. Throughout the 1970s there were significant increases in the proportion of gross domestic product (GDP) (the total value of all goods and services produced by a country) absorbed by health care spending. Between 1972 and 1982 there was a 36-percent, 30-percent, 26-percent and 25-percent increase, respectively, in the percentage of GDP spent on

DYNAMIC AIRCRAFT Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

DYNAMIC AIRCRAFT - Assignment Example First and foremost, Mr. Marshall got the wire specifications that the engineering department demanded for. He did this while ensuring that the engineers did not see the move as a way to censure them from specifying only one source. The engineers indicated that they required a special wire that could withstand very high temperatures hence the reason for their choice of Advanced Wire as the most appropriate source. According to Mr. Marshall, it was paramount for the engineers to indicate which type of specification to the supply manager since it was a rule in the company. Expecting to receive the governing specifications from the engineers, Mr. Marshall got samples of Advanced Wire’s ceramic-coated wire as well as its price quotations. This confirmed his fears as the prices were relatively higher than the industry averages although the ceramic-coating indeed made it be more expensive. The specifications from the engineers were of military standard type but the performance requir ements did not particularly specify that the wire had to have ceramic-coating. With this in mind, Mr. Marshall invited quotations from other suppliers who could meet the performance requirements with emphasis put on their prices and whether their samples met the specifications needed. Some five more suppliers were interested in providing the wire. The other suppliers submitted their price quotations and samples to Mr. Marshall who forwarded the samples to the production development laboratory for evaluation and analysis. The laboratory submitted its findings a week later which primarily focused on the ability of the samples to withstand high temperatures for long periods of time; the fundamental specification required by the engineers. One of the samples failed to meet the stipulated performance specifications but the other five samples exceeded the minimum performance requirements. The Advanced Wire’s sample was in fact more superior to the other sample in regards to its abi lity to withstand extremely high temperatures. The tests done on the weight of the samples, which was another important metric, showed that the wire supplied by Advanced Wire was considerably heavier than the other samples. Moreover, the conductivity attributes of Advanced’s wire was also relatively inferior compared to the other wires which exceeded the minimum performance specifications and were therefore acceptable. Furthermore, the abrasiveness test revealed that the wire supplied by Advanced Wire was less durable than the other wires by the other companies despite it passing the minimum performance tests. Armed with all this information, Mr. Marshall had the belief that indeed the engineering department might have got it wrong by stating that Advanced Wore had the best wire in the market. A fact proven wrong by all the tests performed which showed that other companies had superior products which met the governing military specifications that the engineers needed. Althoug h the wire by Advanced Wire was the most superior in reference to the ability to withstand heat owing to its ceramic-coating, it still did not justify the higher price quoted by the company. Other suppliers also met the specifications submitted by the engineers with a considerably lower price offered. Easternhouse Electric Company had the lowest asking price for the wire with a difference of $20,346 between it and Advanced Wire’